Human MR1 HEK 293 Cells

What are MAIT cells?

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells represent a conserved arm of the immune system, bridging the innate and adaptive responses¹. They are one of the most abundant populations of unconventional T cells in humans, accounting for 1% to 10% of circulating T cells. They are especially enriched in barrier and mucosal tissues, as well as in the liver (up to 40% of resident T cells), lung, and intestine, where they play a key role in antimicrobial defense^1-2. MAIT cells express specialized semi-invariant T cell antigen receptors (TCRs), which recognize small metabolite antigens presented by the non-polymorphic MHC class I-related protein (MR1)³.

What is MR1?

MR1 (MHC class I-related protein 1) is an antigen-presenting molecule that presents small metabolite antigens to MAIT cells and other MR1-restricted T cells. MR1 is a highly conserved membrane protein among mammalian species and associates non-covalently with β2-microglobulin (β2m). Although MR1 is broadly transcribed, its cell-surface expression is normally limited. Under physiological conditions, MR1 is localized in the endoplasmic reticulum. During infection, MR1 molecules associated with suitable ligands, such as microbial vitamin B metabolites, migrate to the cell surface, and present them to and, thus, activate MAIT cells³.

What is 5-A-RU? 

5-Amino-6-D-ribitylaminouracil (5-A-RU) is an intermediate of the microbial riboflavin (vitamin B2) biosynthetic pathway and a precursor of potent MR1-presented MAIT cell antigens. Many bacteria and fungi, but not mammalian cells, possess the riboflavin biosynthetic pathway and can generate 5-A-RU³. Importantly, 5-A-RU does not directly bind MR1 or activate MAIT cells. Instead, it reacts non-enzymatically with small carbonyl metabolites that can originate from host or microbial metabolism. Reaction with methylglyoxal, a by-product of glycolysis, generates the potent but unstable MAIT agonist 5-OP-RU, whereas reaction with glyoxal generates 5-OE-RU^4,5. 5-OP-RU is captured within the MR1 antigen-binding cleft, where it forms a covalent Schiff base with Lys43 (K43) of MR1⁴. This interaction stabilizes the MR1–5-OP-RU complex and promotes its trafficking to the cell surface for recognition by the MAIT TCR⁴. Because 5-OP-RU is unstable in aqueous solution, it is commonly generated in situ from 5-A-RU and methylglyoxal for the study of MR1-dependent MAIT cell activation⁵.

How are MAIT cells activated?

MAIT cells are able to sense a wide range of bacteria and can be rapidly activated and mount potent immune responses through two distinct pathways^1,3.

In the TCR-dependent pathway, microbial metabolites are loaded and presented by the MR1 molecule on the surface of infected cells, leading to MAIT cell activation. Alternatively, MAIT cells can be triggered in an MR1-independent manner through inflammatory cytokines, notably IL-12 and IL-18, released during infection¹. 

As a result, MAIT cells secrete a variety of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines (e. g. IFN-γ, TNF, IL-17), as well as express the cytotoxic molecules, granzyme B and perforin. With their expression of immune checkpoint receptors, strong cytotoxic capabilities, and graft-versus-host-disease (GvHD)-free safety profile, MAIT cells have become an attractive focus in tumor immunology research¹. 

How are MAIT cells being explored for cancer immunotherapy?

Emerging strategies include MAIT-cell engagers⁶, such as bispecific antibodies that redirect MAIT cells toward tumor-associated antigens, as well as CAR-engineered MAIT cells for adoptive cell therapy¹. Additional approaches aim to expand MAIT cells ex vivo, generate MAIT cells from induced pluripotent stem cells, or enhance their activity through MR1 ligands, cytokines, and microbiota modulation¹. Together, these strategies highlight the growing interest in harnessing MAIT cells for cancer immunotherapy and other immune-mediated diseases. However, most MAIT cell-based therapies remain in the preclinical or early clinical stages, and further research is needed to better understand MAIT cell biology and fully realize their therapeutic potential.

References:

1. Yigit M, et al., 2024. Mucosal-associated invariant T cells in cancer: dual roles, complex interactions and therapeutic potential. Front Immunol. 15:1369236.
2. Ghazarian L, et al., 2017. Mucosal-Associated Invariant T Cell Interactions with Commensal and Pathogenic Bacteria: Potential Role in Antimicrobial Immunity in the Child. Front Immunol. 8:1837.
3. Howson LJ, et al., 2015. MR1-Restricted Mucosal-Associated Invariant T Cells and Their Activation during Infectious Diseases. Front Immunol. 6:303. 
4. Corbett AJ, et al., 2014. T-cell activation by transitory neo-antigens derived from distinct microbial pathways. Nature. 509:361–365.
5. Li K, et al., 2018. Synthesis, stabilization, and characterization of the MR1 ligand precursor 5-amino-6-D-ribitylaminouracil (5-A-RU). PLoS ONE. 13:e0191837.
6. Plyte SE, et al., 2024. MAIT engagers: Bispecific antibody-mediated redirection of mucosal associated invariant T cells to treat solid tumors. Cancer Res. 84(6_Suppl) 6708.